| The use of nuclear power is controversial | | | | installations in the United States. The study |
| because of the problem of storing radioactive | | | | showed no increase in the incidence of |
| waste for indefinite periods, the potential | | | | childhood leukemia mortality in the study of |
| for possibly severe radioactive contamination | | | | surrounding counties after start-up of the |
| by accident or sabotage, and the possibility | | | | nuclear facilities. The NCI study, the |
| that its use in some countries could lead to | | | | broadest of its kind ever conducted, surveyed |
| the proliferation of nuclear weapons. | | | | 900,000 cancer deaths in counties near |
| Proponents believe that these risks are small | | | | nuclear facilities. |
| and can be further reduced by the technology | | | | |
| in the new reactors. They further claim that | | | | However, in Britain there are elevated |
| the safety record is already good when | | | | childhood leukemia levels near some |
| compared to other fossil-fuel plants, that it | | | | industrial facilities, particularly near |
| releases much less radioactive waste than | | | | Sellafield, where children living locally are |
| coal power, and that nuclear power is a | | | | ten times more likely to contract the cancer. |
| sustainable energy source. Critics, including | | | | The reasons for these increases, or clusters, |
| most major environmental groups, claim | | | | are unclear, but one study of those near |
| nuclear power is an uneconomic and | | | | Sellafield has ruled out any contribution |
| potentially dangerous energy source with a | | | | from nuclear sources. |
| limited fuel supply, especially compared to | | | | |
| renewable energy, and dispute whether the | | | | Apart from anything else, the levels of |
| costs and risks can be reduced through new | | | | radiation at these sites are orders of |
| technology. | | | | magnitude too low to account for the excess |
| | | | incidences reported. One explanation is |
| Accidents | | | | viruses or other infectious agents being |
| | | | introduced into a local community by the mass |
| A nuclear accident is generally considered to | | | | movement of migrant workers. Likewise, small |
| involve the release of radioactive material | | | | studies have found an increased incidence of |
| from the vessel and piping containing it. | | | | childhood leukemia near some nuclear power |
| Examples of nuclear accidents include the | | | | plants has also been found in Germany and |
| Chernobyl disaster, the Three Mile Island | | | | France . Nonetheless, the results of larger |
| accident, the Windscale fire, and the Mayak | | | | multi-site studies in these countries |
| accident. | | | | invalidate the hypothesis of an increased |
| | | | risk of leukemia related to nuclear |
| The Chernobyl disaster was a major accident | | | | discharge. The methodology and very small |
| in 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant | | | | samples in the studies finding an increased |
| in the Ukrainian SSR (now the Ukraine), | | | | incidence has been criticized. . Also, one |
| consisting of an explosion at the plant and | | | | study focusing on Leukemia clusters in |
| subsequent radioactive contamination of large | | | | industrial towns in England indicated a link |
| portions of land in Europe. It is regarded as | | | | to high-capacity electricity lines suggesting |
| the worst accident ever in the history of | | | | that the production or distribution of the |
| nuclear power. A number of workers were | | | | electricity, rather than the nuclear |
| fatally irradiated, and the potential death | | | | reaction, may be a factor. |
| toll among civilians is still debated. | | | | |
| Operator error and plant design were cited as | | | | Nuclear proliferation |
| a cause for the meltdown. | | | | |
| | | | Nuclear proliferation is the spread of |
| The 1979 Three Mile Island accident was the | | | | nuclear weapons and related technology to |
| worst civilian nuclear accident outside the | | | | nations not recognized "Nuclear Weapon |
| Soviet Union. However, the reactor vessel and | | | | States" by the Nuclear Nonproliferation |
| containment building were not breached, even | | | | Treaty. Opponents of civilian nuclear power |
| though the reactor had suffered a partial | | | | point out that nuclear technology may be |
| core meltdown, so that very little radiation | | | | dual-use technology, and some of the |
| (well below natural background radiation | | | | materials and knowledge used in a civilian |
| levels) was released into the | | | | nuclear program may be used to develop |
| environment.[29] There were no immediate | | | | nuclear weapons. |
| fatalities or injuries, and there is | | | | |
| projected to be one additional cancer in the | | | | The military and civil purposes for nuclear |
| population as a result of the accident | | | | energy are intertwined in most countries with |
| (again, some groups debate this). | | | | nuclear capabilities. Original impetus for |
| | | | development of nuclear power came from the |
| Design changes are being pursued to lessen | | | | military nuclear programs, including the |
| the risks of fission reactors; in particular, | | | | early designs of power reactors that were |
| passively safe plants (such as the ESBWR) are | | | | developed for nuclear submarines. In many |
| available to be built and inherently safe | | | | countries nuclear and civilian nuclear |
| designs are being pursued. Fusion reactors | | | | programs are linked, at least by common |
| which may come to exist in the future | | | | research projects and through agencies such |
| theoretically have very little risk. | | | | as the US DOE and French CEA. In the U.S., |
| | | | for example, the first goal of the Department |
| The World Nuclear Association argues that | | | | of Energy is "to advance the national, |
| most major forms of energy production cause | | | | economic, and energy security of the United |
| deaths. In their comparison, deaths per TWy | | | | States; to promote scientific and |
| of electricity produced are 885 for | | | | technological innovation in support of that |
| hydropower, 342 for coal, 85 for natural gas, | | | | mission; and to ensure the environmental |
| and 8 for nuclear. Air pollution from fossil | | | | cleanup of the national nuclear weapons |
| fuels is argued to cause tens of thousands of | | | | complex."[43] |
| additional deaths each year in the US alone. | | | | |
| However, wind power was not included in this | | | | To prevent weapons proliferation, safeguards |
| study, and is reputed to have caused no | | | | on nuclear technology were published in the |
| deaths at all. | | | | Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and |
| | | | monitored since 1968 by the International |
| Vulnerability of plants to attack | | | | Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Nations signing |
| | | | the treaty are required to report to the IAEA |
| Nuclear power plants are generally (although | | | | what nuclear materials they hold and their |
| not always) considered "hard" targets. In the | | | | location. They agree to accept visits by IAEA |
| US, plants are surrounded by a double row of | | | | auditors and inspectors to verify |
| tall fences which are electronically | | | | independently their material reports and |
| monitored. The plant grounds are patrolled by | | | | physically inspect the nuclear materials |
| a sizeable force of armed guards.[citation | | | | concerned to confirm physical inventories of |
| needed] The NRC's "Design Basis Threat" | | | | them in exchange for access to nuclear |
| criteria for plants is a secret, and so what | | | | materials and equipment on the global market. |
| size attacking force the plants are able to | | | | |
| protect against is unknown. However, to Scram | | | | Several states did not sign the treaty and |
| a plant takes less than 5 seconds while | | | | were able to use international nuclear |
| unimpeded restart takes hours, severely | | | | technology (often procured for civilian |
| hampering a terrorist force in a goal to | | | | purposes) to develop nuclear weapons (India, |
| release radioactivity. | | | | Pakistan, Israel, and South Africa). Of those |
| | | | who have signed the treaty and received |
| Attack from the air is a more problematic | | | | shipments of nuclear paraphernalia, many |
| concern. The most important barrier against | | | | states have either claimed to, or been |
| the release of radioactivity in the event of | | | | accused of, attempting to use supposedly |
| an aircraft strike is the containment | | | | civilian nuclear power plants for developing |
| building and its missile shield. The NRC's | | | | weapons. Certain types of reactors may be |
| Chairman has said "Nuclear power plants are | | | | more conducive to producing nuclear weapons |
| inherently robust structures that our studies | | | | materials than others, such as possible |
| show provide adequate protection in a | | | | future fast breeder reactors, and a number of |
| hypothetical attack by an airplane. The NRC | | | | international disputes over proliferation |
| has also taken actions that require nuclear | | | | have centered on the specific model of |
| power plant operators to be able to manage | | | | reactor being contracted for in a country |
| large fires or explosions - no matter what | | | | suspected of nuclear weapon ambitions. |
| has caused them." | | | | |
| | | | There is concern in some countries over North |
| In addition, supporters point to large | | | | Korea and Iran operating research reactors |
| studies carried out by NRC and other agencies | | | | and fuel enrichment plants, since those |
| that tested the robustness of both reactor | | | | countries refuse adequate IAEA oversight and |
| and waste fuel storage, and found that they | | | | are believed to be trying to develop nuclear |
| should be able to sustain a terrorist attack | | | | weapons. North Korea admits that it is |
| comparable to the September 11 terrorist | | | | developing nuclear weapons, while the Iranian |
| attacks in the USA. Spent fuel is usually | | | | government vehemently denies the claims |
| housed inside the plant's "protected zone" or | | | | against Iran. |
| a spent nuclear fuel shipping cask; stealing | | | | |
| it for use in a "dirty bomb" is extremely | | | | Some proponents of nuclear power agree that |
| difficult. Exposure to the intense radiation | | | | the risk of nuclear proliferation may be a |
| would almost certainly quickly incapacitate | | | | reason to prevent nondemocratic developing |
| or kill any terrorists who attempt to do so. | | | | nations from gaining any nuclear technology |
| | | | but argue that this is no reason for |
| Nuclear power plants are designed to | | | | democratic developed nations to abandon their |
| withstand threats deemed credible at the time | | | | nuclear power plants, especially in the light |
| of licensing. However, as weapons evolve it | | | | of the democratic peace theory, which argues |
| cannot be said unequivocably that within the | | | | that democracies refrain from war against |
| 60 year life of a plant it will not become | | | | each other. There is, however, always the |
| vulnerable. Safety against airplanes became | | | | risk that information of new technologies |
| an issue only after the September 11 attacks. | | | | will be stolen and made public (e.g. on the |
| There is no knowing what other methods will | | | | Internet), making it ever easier for any |
| be thought of over the next few hundreds or | | | | country to build its own nuclear facilities. |
| even thousands of years. The airplane itself | | | | However, all power sources and technology can |
| is only one century old. Also, storage sites | | | | be used to produce and use weapons. The |
| may be well protected now, but if that | | | | weapons of mass destruction used in chemical |
| remains the case will strongly depend on | | | | warfare and biological warfare are not |
| political developments which are impossible | | | | dependent on nuclear power. Humans could |
| to predict. | | | | still make war even if all technology was |
| | | | forbidden. |
| Other forms of energy production are also | | | | |
| vulnerable to attack, such as hydroelectric | | | | Proponents also note that nuclear power, like |
| dams and LNG tankers. | | | | some other power sources, provides steady |
| | | | energy at a consistent price without |
| Use of waste byproduct as a weapon | | | | competing for energy resources from other |
| | | | countries, something that may contribute to |
| Opponents of nuclear power express concerns | | | | wars.[citation needed] |
| that nuclear waste is not well protected, and | | | | |
| that it can be possible be used as a | | | | Concerns about floating nuclear plants |
| terrorist weapon, as a dirty bomb, quoting a | | | | |
| 1999 Russian incident where workers were | | | | Russia has begun building the world’s |
| caught trying to sell 5 grams of radioactive | | | | first floating nuclear power plant. The |
| material on the open market, or the incident | | | | £100 million vessel, the Lomonosov, is the |
| in 1993 where Russian workers were caught | | | | first of seven plants that Moscow says will |
| selling 4.5 kilograms of enriched uranium. | | | | bring vital energy resources to remote |
| The UN has since called upon world leaders to | | | | Russian regions. |
| improve security in order to prevent | | | | |
| radioactive material falling into the hands | | | | Environmental groups and nuclear experts are |
| of terrorists. Proponents of nuclear power | | | | concerned that floating nuclear plants will |
| argue, however, that a dirty bomb is not a | | | | be more vulnerable to accidents and terrorism |
| very effective weapon and would cause | | | | than land-based stations. They point to a |
| relatively few casualties, although the | | | | history of naval and nuclear accidents in |
| psychological impact would be high. | | | | Russia and the former Soviet Union, including |
| | | | the Chernobyl disaster of 1986. Russia does |
| Health effect on population near nuclear | | | | have 50 years of experience operating a fleet |
| plants | | | | of nuclear powered icebreakers that are also |
| | | | used for scientific and arctic tourism |
| Most of the human exposure to radiation comes | | | | expeditions. |
| from natural background radiation. Most of | | | | |
| the remaining exposure comes from medical | | | | The Russians have commented that a nuclear |
| procedures. Several large studies in the US, | | | | reactor that sinks, such as the similar |
| Canada, and Europe have found no evidence of | | | | reactor involved in the Kursk explosion, can |
| any increase in cancer mortality among people | | | | be raised and probably put back into |
| living near nuclear facilities. For example, | | | | operation.[citation needed] |
| in 1990, the National Cancer Institute (NCI) | | | | |
| of the National Institutes of Health | | | | At this time it is not known what, if any, |
| announced that a large-scale study, which | | | | containment structure or associated missile |
| evaluated mortality from 16 types of cancer, | | | | shield will be built on the ship. The |
| found no increased incidence of cancer | | | | Russians believe that an airliner striking |
| mortality for people living near 62 nuclear | | | | the ship would not destroy the reactor. |